p.Today’s global landscape is defined by a new kind of conflict—hybrid warfare— that combines traditional combat and modern digital tactics. The new unconventional tools include cyberattacks, disinformation campaigns, and autonomous weapons, creating a complex battlefield that is constantly evolving.

p.Hybrid warfare, which became possible and has increased only because of the Internet, has blown tremendous holes into international humanitarian law, which was largely developed before the Internet era. It creates new challenges for everyone working for international protection, and will require the amending of old treaties, the creating of new ones, and the outright banning of some kinds of digitized weapons.

p.Here I’ll describe the dangers and suggest some ways of meeting these new challenges. Ultimately, these efforts highlight the critical importance of fostering a sustainable peace in a world where conflict can erupt rapidly and unpredictably.

h3.WARFARE IS ALWAYS CHANGING

p.Various institutions, using slightly different criteria, produce differing counts of war, but they are all shocking. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, (GPI) there are currently 56 active conflicts worldwide—the highest number since World War II. These conflicts are increasingly international, involving around 92 countries beyond their borders.

p.The Geneva Academy’s report on International Humanitarian Law notes that there are about 110 ongoing armed conflicts globally, with some stretching back over 50 years. The International Committee of the Red Cross estimates that more than 120 conflicts involve over 60 states and numerous non-state armed groups.

p.Whether defined by their duration or intensity, one thing is clear: global conflict is more prevalent. The United Nations warns that the world is “at a crossroads,” with a real risk of escalation into major wars if decisive action isn’t taken. The modern battlefield is no longer just about soldiers and tanks; it’s a digital arena where autonomous drones, cyberattacks, and livestreamed extremist violence are becoming commonplace. The UN highlights the rise of cyber threats, weaponized artificial intelligence, and criminal activities like hacking and ransomware—elements that add layers of complexity to traditional warfare.

p.Parallel to these conflicts is the alarming increase in forced displacement. The UNHCR reports that over 122 million people worldwide are forcibly displaced—refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs).

p.This number has surged over the past decade, driven largely by organized political violence such as civil wars and insurgencies. These conflicts often involve countless non-state actors and are fueled by rapid technological advances, shifting geopolitics, economic pressures, and cultural upheavals. The result? An unprecedented level of human suffering and instability.

h3.THE GAPS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW

p.As irregular warfare proliferates and digital technologies become integral to combat, the legal systems designed to protect civilians are showing their age.

p.International humanitarian law, refugee law, and criminal law were all drafted long before the internet became central to modern conflict. The 1993 advent of the World Wide Web marked the beginning of a digital revolution, yet most treaties still lack provisions for online privacy, data security, or cyber warfare.

p.This disconnect creates a legal gray zone. While International Humanitarian Law applies to traditional armed conflicts, it offers limited guidance on cyberattacks or hybrid tactics that don’t clearly qualify as war. For example, the Tallinn Manual of 2021—an academic document—has attempted to interpret how international law applies to cyber operations. It aims to classify cyberattacks in a way that aligns with the rules governing conventional warfare, but its recommendations are not legally binding.

p.Hybrid warfare’s defining characteristic is the fusion of conventional military power with covert operations, disinformation, cyberattacks, and other clandestine tactics. It’s a “symphony of chaos,” where states and non-state actors exploit vulnerabilities through a mix of “hard” and “soft” power.

p.The digital and social media are rife with disinformation campaigns. The first line of defence against hybrid warfare is the State itself. Ultimately, the way to counter such hybrid warfare tactics is through building trust.

p.But at present, disinformation campaigns, deepfakes, and social media manipulation are used to undermine trust in governments and institutions, often within what’s called the “grey zone”—activities that harm another state but don’t cross the threshold into open conflict.

p.Because these actions fall outside traditional definitions of war, they often escape legal oversight. They do not fall within the jurisdiction of International Humanitarian Law, and therefore leave victims without adequate protections.

h3.CHALLENGES TO INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION

p.The four fundamental principles guiding humanitarian action—humanity, independence, impartiality, and neutrality—are increasingly threatened by the digital age’s challenges. Cyberattacks can disable vital communication networks, disrupt relief operations, or even endanger aid workers.

p.Humanitarian organizations, which rely heavily on digital technology, find themselves in a precarious position: they need technology to operate effectively, but that very reliance makes them vulnerable to cyber threats. They are damned if they do and damned if they don’t.

h3.Because these actions fall outside traditional definitions of war, they often escape legal oversight.

p.The 2001 Budapest Convention on Cybercrime aims to combat cyber misconduct by harmonizing laws across countries and fostering international cooperation. It also provides technical assistance to State Parties in building their capacity to implement the treaty’s provisions.

p.Recently, a new version of this treaty was adopted to strengthen global efforts against cybercrime. Such frameworks are vital for addressing the complexities of hybrid warfare, but they are just one piece of a much larger puzzle.

p.One potential solution involves restricting or banning certain digitized weapons and cyber tools—similar to how conventional weapons have often been regulated. Several types of weapons, such as land mines, cluster munitions, or incendiary weapons like napalm, are governed by specific treaties or customary international law rules. Weapons may be prohibited outright under these treaties, while others may be restricted in the way they are used.

p.Nevertheless, enforcement remains a major challenge in the face of rapid technological innovation and the clandestine nature of cyber operations.

h3.TOWARD A MORE RESILIENT AND PEACEFUL FUTURE

p.The evolving landscape of hybrid warfare demands innovative, adaptable responses. Strengthening international law, fostering trust among nations, and investing in resilient humanitarian systems are essential steps toward safeguarding civilians and promoting peace.

p.Also required is the adoption of what has worked effectively in the past for conventional warfare by restricting the use or entirely banning the weaponized use of certain forms of digitized activities –within the so-called “grey zone” that falls outside the traditional jurisdiction of IHL.

p.Recognizing the limitations of existing treaties and working collaboratively to develop new legal norms can help fill the gaps in protecting human rights and preventing conflict escalation. The modernization and amendment of existing treaties and the negotiation of new treaties is a necessity, if we are to advance international protection in the era of hybrid warfare.

p.The goal is clear: to build a sustainable peace from today’s digital and hybrid conflicts. The collective effort of governments, international organizations, and civil society will be crucial in shaping a safer and more just global order.

p.James C. Simeon is a professor of public policy and administration, York University. jcsimeon@yorku.ca